Feeding frequency and rate effects on golden shiner yields

This pool study found that growth was not significantly improved if the daily ration of feed (at 3% body weight) is fed once per day or split into three feedings. See:

Stone, N., M. Rowan and B. Holden.  1993.  Feeding frequency and rate effects on golden shiner yields.  Arkansas Farm Research 42(2):4-5.

Effect of satiate or restricted feeding on golden shiner production in earthen ponds.

Golden shiners consumed closed to 3% of their body weight per day at a single feeding, but took longer to satiate than do channel catfish. See:

Rowan, M. and N. Stone. 1995.  Effect of satiate or restricted feeding on golden shiner production in earthen ponds.   Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 26(4):460-464.

Effect of winter feeding rate, feed form and trigger temperature on yield and condition of golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas).

Feeding at 1% of body weight per day on warmer days maintained fish size and condition. See:

McNulty, E., N. Stone and S. Lochmann.  2000. Effect of winter feeding rate, feed form and trigger temperature on yield and condition of golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas). Journal of Applied Aquaculture 10(3):69-82.

Effects of stocking and feeding rates on growth and production of feeder goldfish in pools.

Feeder goldfish fed at 1% of body weight grew very slowly, but at a stocking rate equivalent to 1 million/acre, condition was not significantly different from fish fed at higher rates. See:

Stone, N., E. McNulty and E. Park. 2003.  The effect of stocking and feeding rates on growth and production of feeder goldfish in pools.  North American Journal of Aquaculture 65:82-90.

Water circulation for golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas production in ponds

Day time water circulation did not improve production. See:

Stone, N. and M. Rowan. 1998. Ineffectiveness of water circulation for golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas production in ponds. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 29:510-517.

Effect of pond renovation on water quality in commercial goldfish ponds.

An SRAC-funded research study evaluated the potential of pond renovation to decrease blue-green algae problems in goldfish production ponds. Monthly water quality and plankton community data were collected from 12 commercial goldfish ponds for a year. Six of the 12 ponds were renovated during the winter (1999-2000) and returned to production in late spring. Water quality monitoring was then resumed in the renovated ponds and was continued for the growing season. Results indicated little difference in water quality in renovated ponds as compared to controls. Soluble reactive phosphorus was significantly higher in renovated ponds for the first two months after ponds were returned to production, reflecting pond management practices for rearing new crops of fish. Pre- and post-renovation soil testing showed no overall significant difference in sediment phosphorus concentrations (Fig. 1). This may reflect the fact that sediment from inside ponds is used to re-build ponds levees. However, pond renovation significantly reduced the phosphorus level in the upper 2 cm of sediment (P=0.05). Sulfate sulfur concentrations in pond bottom sediments were 98 + 100 ppm (mean + SD) and ranged from 3 to 417 ppm. Compared to typical levels in terrestrial soils in the study area, these concentrations are very high. Sulfate sulfur results from the decomposition of organic matter and typically is higher in clayey soils.

Seasonal variation in water quality in commercial golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas ponds.

Ellen McNulty and Nathan Stone  
The golden shiner Note is the major fish species raised for bait in the southern region. Ponds that are drained are often emptied in late winter and spring, in preparation for the new crop of fish. Selected water quality parameters in commercial ponds were measured at monthly intervals from July 1999 through June 2000. Study ponds ranged in size from 3 to 10 ha and represented two soil types and two ages (20-25 years and 40-45 years). Using a column sampler, water samples were collected from a single location in each pond. Dissolved oxygen, temperature, pH, and Secchi depth were recorded at the time of sampling. Samples were analyzed for selected parameters including total phosphorus (TP), soluble reactive phosphorus (SRP), total nitrogen (TN), total ammonia, nitrite, nitrate, chemical oxygen demand (COD), chlorophyll a, total iron, total alkalinity, and total hardness.

Results showed that for parameters linked to phytoplankton abundance (i.e., chlorophyll a, COD, TP, TN), seasonal water quality changes in golden shiner ponds were similar to those reported for channel catfish culture. Dissimilar results were found for dissolved inorganic nitrogen, which was highest in the fall rather than in the winter, as has been reported for catfish. This may reflect 
the relatively low feeding rates used for baitfish. In addition, relatively higher SRP concentrations were found in 
the summer months, perhaps a result of powered feed used for young fish.

Box plots of seasonal changes in dissolved inorganic nitrogen (left) and soluble reactive phosphorus (right) in 12 commercial golden shiner ponds.

Effects of sodium nitrate on baitfish pond bottom soils.

Melinda Bodary and Nathan Stone

Sodium nitrate has been proposed as a pond bottom treatment to improve water quality. A laboratory study was conducted to evaluate the effects of incorporating sodium nitrate into pond bottom soils. Two common soils (Perry-Portland, Calloway-Calhoun-Loring) were collected from the bottoms of 20 to 45-year-old commercial baitfish ponds. A layer (4.5 L) of soil was added to each of 24 microcosms (13-L buckets) and powdered sodium nitrate was soil-incorporated at rates of 0, 25, 50 or 75 g N/ m². Buckets were filled with pond water, and sodium acetate was added throughout the study to create anoxic conditions. Results showed that incorporating sodium nitrate did suppress phosphorus release in both soils for 11-19 days. However, elevated nitrite concentrations were also found, as high as 180-250 mg/L in the high rate treatment. The higher the rate of sodium nitrate, the longer was the duration of phosphorus suppression, but the additional time was not proportional to the dose.

A second laboratory study was conducted to evaluate the effects of adding different forms of sodium nitrate through the water column on pond bottom soil. Soil (Perry-Portland) was collected from the upper 10 cm of the bottom of a 45-year-old commercial baitfish pond. A layer (4.5 L) of soil was added to each of 25 microcosms (13-L buckets), buckets were filled with pond water, and sodium acetate was added throughout the study. Sodium nitrate was added to the buckets at a rate of 50 g N/m² in the form of a powder, prill, or two types of coated prills (short-term and long-term). Coated prills were suggested as a mechanism to permit application of sodium nitrate through the water column. The short-term coating was designed to release 20% the first day and to finish release by day 10 to 15, while the long-term coating was intended to slowly release sodium nitrate over a 2 to 3-month period. Results showed that compared to controls, adding sodium nitrate suppressed phosphorus release regardless of product form, with the long-term coated prill treatment lasting 10 days.  Elevated nitrite levels (>150 mg/L) were found in all buckets except those in the long-term release prill treatment (highest concentration for this form was 13 mg/L NO₂).

Sodium nitrate in the form of time-release (long-term) coated prills was applied through the water at a rate of 50 g N/m² to four of eight 4.7 m² limnocorrals installed within a goldfish brood pond. A blower system directed an air current over the surface of each corral to provide mixing without aeration. Results suggested that applying sodium nitrate suppressed phosphorus release for about 2 weeks. Oxidation-reduction potential results indicated significantly less reduced soil conditions for 3 weeks. Limnocorral nitrite levels did not exceed 3 mg/L throughout the experiment.   Due to the short duration of phosphorus suppression and soil oxidation, sodium nitrate additions do not appear to be a practical treatment for baitfish pond soils.

Characteristics of central Arkansas baitfish pond effluents.

Bodary, M., N. Stone, S. Lochmann, and E. Frimpong. 2004. Characteristics of effluents from central 
      Arkansas baitfish farms. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 35:489-497.

Frimpong, E.A., S. E. Lochmann, M. J. Bodary and N. M. Stone. 2004. Suspended solids from baitfish pond 
      effluents in drainage ditches. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 35:159-166.

Frimpong, E. A., S. E. Lochmann, and N. Stone. 2003. Application of a methodology for surveying and 
      comparing the prevalence of drainage ditches to baitfish farms. North American Journal of Aquaculture   
      65:165-170.

Estimating numbers of golden shiner eggs on spawning mats

This study demonstrated that 1.5% sodium sulfite solution could be used to remove golden shiner eggs from spawning mats. See:

Stone, N. and G. M. Ludwig. 1993.  Estimating numbers of golden shiner eggs on spawning mats.  Progressive Fish-Culturis 55:53-54  

Hatching rates of golden shiner eggs in tanks.   

Hatching rates for eggs on mats held in aerated tanks were still relatively low, perhaps due to fungus. See:

Stone, N. and G. M. Ludwig. 1993.  Hatching rates of golden shiner eggs in tanks.  Progressive Fish-Culturist 55:55-56.  

Off-season spawning of golden shiners

Based on the work of DeVlaming, we brought fish indoors in late January and obtained spawns within four weeks, six to eight weeks before the normal season. See:

Rowan, M. and N. Stone. 1996.  Off-season spawning of golden shiners.  Progressive Fish-Culturist 58(1):62-64.

Water quality within baitfish spawning mats during egg incubation in commercial ponds.

On occasion, we found low dissolved oxygen levels within spawning mats even when DO concentrations in the pond water were acceptable.  Abrupt changes in temperature during the egg transfer process were documented. See:

Stone, N., E. Park, and H. Thomforde. 1999. Water quality within baitfish spawning mats during egg incubation in commercial ponds. North American Journal of Aquaculture 61:107-114.

Evaluation of the Enzyme Alcalase for Removing Goldfish Eggs from Spawning Substrate.

Alcalase is a low-cost industrial enzyme that has been shown to be effective in eliminating egg stickiness in tench. Preliminary testing was conducted to determine if alcalase would be effective in removing goldfish eggs from spawning substrate. Four trials were conducted using alcalase 2.4 L (food grade) at various concentrations (0 to 150ml/L) and exposure times (2 to 7.5 min.).  Under study conditions, alcalase was found to have some effectiveness in detaching eggs at high concentrations (>45 ml/L) as compared to controls but treatments did not remove the majority of eggs even at elevated levels.  

Golden shiner egg production over the spawning season.

As his thesis project, graduate student Troy Clemment documented egg production by golden shiners over the spawning season.  He found that water temperature was a major factor controlling egg production.

Golden shiner producers usually cease collecting eggs from a brood pond after 3 to 4 weeks due to declining egg production. If eggs could be obtained for a longer period, fewer brood fish would be required and less pond space would be needed for brood stock. The main objective of this study was to document daily egg production by golden shiners over the entire spawning season.

Four plastic-lined pools were stocked March 15, 2000 with 50 golden shiners each (average weight per fish  = 20 lb/1000), a rate equivalent to 33,000 fish/acre and a weight of 670 lb/acre. A sample of the stocked population was found to be 72% female. Fish were fed once daily at 5% body weight per day with a 40% protein, 9% fat, extruded (pelleted) feed. A spawning mat on a floating rack was placed in each pool. Mats were replaced and checked daily for eggs, and any eggs were removed with sodium sulfite solution and measured volumetrically. Periodically, egg samples of known volumes were counted to provide estimates of the number of eggs per unit volume. The study was continued through July 4 for a total of 111 days.

Broodfish in the study spawned for the entire season with no apparent decline in egg production. Eggs were found in at least one of the four pools every day with only four exceptions. Total egg production per female averaged 14,229, with a seasonal average of 128 eggs per female per day. On average, a pound of brood fish (72% female) produced 478,994 eggs over the season. Broodstock condition (Wr, K) was significantly better at the end of spawning season than it was at stocking. In addition, by harvest (July 5-7), broodfish had nearly doubled in weight, averaging 39 lb/1000, despite having spawned for more than 3 months (see harvest photographs below).  This study demonstrates that it is possible to maintain egg production for the entire spawning season if broodfish are fed an adequate amount of a high quality diet.

Funding for this study was provided by the State of Arkansas and the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service (CSREES), USDA.

Collection, removal and quantification of eggs produced by rosy red fathead minnows in outdoor pools.

Clemment, T., and N. Stone. 2004. Collection, removal and quantification of eggs produced by rosy red 
       fathead minnows in outdoor pools. North American Journal of Aquaculture 66:75-80.

Comparison of regular and high fat minnow diets for golden shiners.

(Cooperative project with Dr. Rebecca Lochmann)                  

Hi-fat diets provide additional energy, which may be stored as body fat, and the fish can draw on this during times when feed is scarce or not available, and when added stress increases energy demands (transport, marketing).  Furthermore, there are indications both in baitfish and in other species that stress response may be affected by the type of dietary fat fed. 

Lochmann, R., and N. Stone.  2004. High fat feeds for baitfish?  Arkansas Aquafarming 27(1):7-8.

Development of larval feeds for golden shiners in ponds.

(Cooperative project with Dr. Rebecca Lochmann)

Lochmann, R.T., N. Stone, H. Phillips, and M. Bodary. 2004. Evaluation of 36%-protein diets with or without animal protein for rearing tank-hatched golden shiner Notemigonus crysoleucas fry in ponds. North American Journal of Aquaculture 66:271-277.